Tuesday, Mar. 28, 2000
social psychology
Socialization
The process by which personality is formed as the result of social
influences is called socialization. Early research methods employed
case studies of individuals and of individual societies (e.g.,
primitive tribes). Later research has made statistical comparisons
of numbers of persons or of different societies; differences in
child-rearing methods from one society to another, for example, have
been shown to be related to the subsequent behaviour of the infants
when they become adults. Such statistical approaches are limited,
since they fail to discern whether both the personality of the child
and the child-rearing methods used by the parents are the result of
inherited factors or whether the parents are affected by the
behaviour of their children.
Problems in the process of socialization that have been studied by
experimental methods include the analysis of mother-child
interaction in infancy; the effects of parental patterns of
behaviour on the development of intelligence, moral behaviour,
mental health, delinquency, self-image, and other aspects of the
personality of the child; the effects of birth order (e.g., being
the first-born or second-born child) on the individual; and changes
of personality during adolescence. Investigators have also studied
the origins and functioning of achievement motivation and other
social drives (e.g., as measured with personality tests).
Several theories have stimulated research into socialization;
Freudian theory led to some of the earliest studies on such
activities as oral and anal behaviour (e.g., the effect of the
toilet training of children on obsessional and other \"anal\"
behaviour). Learning theory led to the study of the effects of
rewards and punishments on simple social behaviour and was extended
to more complex processes such as imitation and morality (e.g., the
analysis of conscience).
The self
Such concepts as self-esteem, self-image, and ego-involvement have
been regarded by some social psychologists as useful, while others
have regarded them as superfluous. There is a considerable amount of
research on such topics as embarrassment and behaviour in front of
audiences, in which self-image and self-esteem have been assessed by
various self-rating methods. The origin of awareness of self has
been studied in relation to the reactions of others and to the
child\'s comparisons of himself with other children. Particular
attention has been paid to the so-called identity crisis that is
observed at various stages of life (e.g., in adolescence) as the
person struggles to discern the social role that best fits his
self-concept.
Attitudes and beliefs
Research into the origins, dynamics, and changes of attitudes and
beliefs has been carried out by laboratory experiments (studying
relatively minor effects), by social surveys and other statistical
field studies, by psychometric studies, and occasionally by field
experiments. The origins of these socially important predispositions
have been sought in the study of parental attitudes, group norms,
social influence and propaganda, and in various aspects of
personality. The influence of personality has been studied by
correlating measured attitudes with individual personality traits
and by clinical studies of cognitive and motivational processes;
so-called authoritarian behaviour, for example, has been found to be
deeply embedded in the personality of the individual. Early research
based on statistical analyses of social attitudes revealed
correlations with such factors as radicalism-conservatism. Later
research on consistency provided extensive laboratory evidence of
consistency but little evidence of it in actual political behaviour
(e.g., in attitudes on different political issues).
Research on attitude change has studied the effects of the mass
media, the optimum design of persuasive messages, the effects of
motivational arousal, and the role of opinion leaders (e.g.,
teachers and ministers). Research has been carried out into the
origins, functioning, and change of particular attitudes (e.g.,
racial, international, political, and religious), each of which is
affected by special factors. Attitudes toward racial minority
groups, for example, are affected by social conditions, such as the
local housing, employment, and the political situation; political
attitudes are affected by social class and age; and religious
attitudes and beliefs strongly reflect such factors as inner
personality conflict.
Various specialties in social psychology
Many social psychologists are concerned with such aspects of public
opinion (social survey) research as the design of standardized
interviews and questionnaires. Forms of questions have been devised
to compensate for errors that arise from the efforts to respond in a
socially approved manner; some are designed to detect lying. Mass
communications have been devised on the basis of research into
persuasion. Use is also still made of Freudian symbolism and theory.
Research into the causes of mental disorders has shown the
importance of social factors in the family and elsewhere. Mental
patients often show deficiencies in social performance that may be
the cause of other symptoms. Many social psychologists hold that
social factors may also apply to such disorders as schizophrenia,
which also seem to have hereditary and chemical bases. There has
been a corresponding growth in the use of various kinds of social
therapy in psychiatry (e.g., group therapy, therapeutic communities,
and social-skills training).
Considerable research has been devoted to industrial productivity,
absenteeism, labour turnover, accidents, and job satisfaction.
Factors that have been found to be important include the style of
supervision and management, the size and composition of working
groups, the technology and the work-flow systems, the span of
control, and other features of the organizational structure.
Research results point strongly toward the advantages of a less
rigid hierarchical structure of authority, with more delegation of
authority and consultation, training in supervisory skills, small
and cooperative work teams, and interesting and varied work.
A major application of research in social interaction and group
behaviour is in training in social skills, as in the T-groups, or
sensitivity training, noted above. Role playing with video-tape
playback and training in the imitation of other persons who serve as
behavioral models are used in teaching people new skills. Actual
training on the job has the advantage that there is no gap between
the training and the work itself. All of these methods have been
shown to be effective, depending on the job and the teacher.
Social-skills training has been given successfully to industrial
managers and supervisors, social workers and clergymen,
interviewers, public speakers, mental patients, and juvenile
delinquents.
A great deal of research has been done on factors underlying racial
prejudice, but the understanding thus obtained has not had much
effect upon the social problems involved. Similarly, the causes of
delinquency and crime have been extensively studied, but it is not
feasible to manipulate the factors influencing crime, such as
genetic factors, methods of upbringing, and inequalities of
opportunity. Social psychology has made some contribution to
education; sociometry is quite widely practiced as a means of
grouping children, and evidence is growing about the optimum styles
of teacher behaviour.
(M.Ar.)
(Ed.)
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Contents of this article:
Introduction
Research methods
Social perception
Interaction processes
Small social groups
Social organizations
20th-century approaches
Personality
Socialization
The self
Attitudes and beliefs
Various specialties in social psychology
Bibliography
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