Communitarian Vs. Individualistic Ideologies
A Comparative Analysis: Norway Vs. United States
The intent of this paper is to examine individualistic and communitarian
cultural ideologies within two distinctly different political environments. The
first challenge in comparing two nations is deciding which approach is most
appropriate. There are several approaches in political science that have proven
most beneficial when making comparisons. This study will use a comparative
government approach to examine the political institutions, processes,
constitutions, and functions of government within each of the two countries
selected. The countries that have been chosen for this study are United States
and Norway, respectively.
Gregory Scott believes that the fundamental aspects of human interaction in
society are the need for community (unity) and the need for individuality. The
argument is that the entire history of politics is largely the story of how
communities and nations resolved the inherent conflict between the universal
needs for community and individuality. With that, the topic that this paper
tends to address has emerged, within the study of politics in this class and
others, as the single most dynamic in scope and in implication. Freedom,
equality, and justice combine to build a substantial argument for the
individualistic ideology. Authority, order, and democracy are all building
blocks for the argument of the communitarian. Scott notes that much of what
motivates individualist is a strong desire for freedom. This author also argues
that we are all interdependent and authority is justified by the need to bring
order to societies competing values and thoughts.
In studying the history of humanity, the battleground that has been formed
between the need for individuality and unity is undeniable. A person’s view of
the nature of humanity is fundamental to their view of government, and its
scope. If people are seen as dangerous, then a government to protect people
from that danger is most appropriate. If people are viewed as capable of
fulfilling their own creative potential, you may want a government that
protects individual liberties (Scott, 47). These are all examples of core
values for the entire foundation of government and of politics. This argument,
for the use and scope of government, is divided into many different arguments
that address basic issues of political science.
Political scientists believe that individuals and their actions are what lead
to collective problems. The problem is that our individual actions, each
perfectly consistent with our individual preferences, can and often do combine
to produce collective outcomes that none of us would have chosen (Bickers, 11).
And thus lead to the need for protection against those outcomes, administered through
a democratic government.
There are several authors that are noted for their dynamic research on the
communitarian movement. The spokesperson for the contemporary communitarian
movement is Amitai Etzioni. He explains that communitarians believe that the
fundamental and central political problem is finding the right amount of
togetherness and common concern. He continues, if people are to
individualistic, they fail to support each other’s efforts and to respect each
other’s needs. If people are too unified, they become authoritarian and attempt
to use the state to impose a common set of beliefs and practices.
Like ancient philosophers, communitarians find the lack of unified purpose and
direction in society to be a crucial problem. Those who speak of the joys of
not associating with others, but of being left alone by them, are most closely
associated with individualism. And their noteworthy spokesperson is author and
abolitionist Henry David Thoreau. This early author, observing the pressures,
expectations, and demands made upon us by the societies in which we live,
concluded that “the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation” (Scott, 51).
The communitarian movement seeks to shore up the moral, social, and political
foundations of society. It builds on the elementary social science observation
that people are born without any moral or social values. If they are to become
civil they most acquire values. Later, they may rebel against these values or
seek to modify them, but first they must have them. Historically, the family
was the societal entity entrusted with laying the foundation for moral
education. Schools were the second line of defense. Community bonds, whether
centered on religious institutions, schools, town meetings, or other
establishments, serve to reinforce values that had been previously acquired.
These social institutions were the seedbeds of virtue in which values were
planted and cultivated (Scott, 51).
Robert Nozick makes an argument concerning the role of the government that also
speaks to some individualist thoughts. He begins with his beliefs that
individuals have rights, and there are things no person or group may do to
these rights. So strong and far-reaching are these rights that they raise the
question of what, if anything, the state and its officials may do to comprise
those rights. So, how much room do individuals leave
for the state? The conclusion that is drawn from this statement about the state
is that a minimal state, limited to the narrow functions of protection against
force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on, is justified; that
any more extensive government will violate person’s rights not to be forced to
do certain things, and is unjustified; and that the minimal state is inspiring
as well as right (Scott, 65).
In all this discussion surprisingly little is said about the compatibility of
individuality with community. It is important to note that there are those who
believe, in spite of all the discussion to the contrary, that individuality and
community are not necessarily oppositional values. In fact, not only are they
both necessary, but each one is a necessary condition for the other. In other
words, individuals can only be truly actualized within a community, and a
political community can only be healthy and strong, if it supports the creative
individuality if its members (Scott, 48).
The two countries studied in this paper both have characteristics of
individualism and communitarian ideologies, but in studying the United States
and Norway it became clear that each county was more heavily geared towards one
ideology, individualism, or the other, community. This paper will give an
account of how these underling political ideologies differ and whether these
two countries are communitarian or individualist in their government’s scope
and power.
NORWAY
This portion of the paper will describe Norway’s political structure and
relevant policies that support the concept of its communitarian ideology.
Norway’s political ideology is based on the concept of the community. According
to Webster, a community is defined as a society of people having common rights
and privileges. Norway has several public policies designed to ensure equal
opportunities and protection of its citizens and immigrants. Some of these policies
include an extensive health and social security, gender equality, consumer, and
economic policies. All of these policies are designed to benefit the public as
a whole.
After Norway gained it independence, it adopted a constitutional monarchy political
system. The Norwegian Constitution was written, while the monarchy was still in
control of the country. In addition, Norway has an electoral system, similar to
the United States, which allow its citizens to participate in direct elections
and select representatives.
History
Norway’s history included the age of the Viking from 800-1050 A. D. The Vikings
were considered cruel brigands, actually came to Norway on a peaceful mission
to colonize and trade. Later the establishment of Christianity played an
important part in Norway’s political history. During the 11th century
Christianity was first introduced into Norway.
Before the 1100s the first bishoprics appeared. In 1537 the Reformation was
enforced in Norway by a royal Decree. This Decree gave the archbishop an
important political role. As a result, Lutheran was the primary religion by the
year 1060. The Monarchy’s power increased between 1100 and 1200. From 1319-1343
Norway and Sweden formed a joint monarchy. Norway established a union with
Denmark partly due to inter-Scandinavian royal marriages.
Norway suffered from economic depression during the middle ages. In addition,
the Black Death and other plagues greatly reduced the population of the
country. These economic disparities caused a dramatic decrease in the Norway’s
nobility hold on the country. As a result, Denmark assumed a more important
role in Nordic lands, as Danish and German nobles were appointed to the highest
offices. Consequently, in 1536 Norway ceased to be an independent kingdom. Furthermore,
the Napoleonic wars eventually caused Norway and Denmark to form one kingdom.
After 1905 Norway and Sweden’s union was dissolved, and Norway became an
independent nation. A referendum was established which gave political power to
a monarchy, rather than a republic. In 1932 Norway experience an economic
upswing, which caused the nation’s income to rise by more than 1,400 million
kroner (Norwegian money).
Norway finally adopted a Constitutional Monarchy political system, which
included an electoral system. In the election of 1945, the Labour Party gained
the majority. The elected governor, Einar Gerhardsen’s main goal was to build
up Norway within five years. By 1946 the industrial production and the domestic
product both were greater than they had been since 1938. Subsequently, the
country continued to experience a period of steady growth and progress.
Although Norway did not participate in foreign policy in the previous years,
the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia in 1948 persuaded them to join NATO in
1949. The social democratic party played an important role in curbing the
communist influence in political life and mass organizations.
During the post-war years, the most important policy issue was whether or not
to join the Common Market, or the EU as it is now known. The election of 1965
created a non-socialist government, headed by the Prime Minister of the Centre
Party’s Per Borten. The Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Centre
party, and the Christian Democratic Party supported the Prime Minister. When
Great Britain applied for membership to EU, the issue of Norwegian
participation became urgent. The application reviews of 1962 caused violence of
political forces in the country. Despite the setback of 1973, the Labour Party
maintained control until 1981 when the Conservative Party took over.
Political Structure & Ideologies
Norway has a constitutional monarchy. The current king of Norway is Harald
Finehair who inherited the throne because of his historical ancestry. After
Norway gained its independence in 1905, the constitution was established.
Shortly after that Norway elected a king to rule over the country. Norway’s
constitution reflects the political ideology of the country.
The first section of the constitution establishes the legality for the
existence of the monarchy. It further states that the monarchy may only be
abolished by an amendment to the constitution. Upon entering office, the king
is given certain executive powers and must choose council member to serve under
him. Basically, the king serves as the head-of-state and is primarily symbolic
in nature. He represents his state and his people, and serves as master of
ceremonies. He is not allowed to vote, and is not obligated to pay taxes.
Additionally, the monarchy is primarily responsible for fulfilling everyday
assignments, such as providing endorsements and providing declarations as
appropriate. Most importantly, the king and his cabinet may not exceed the
boundaries of power that has been declared in the constitution. The check and
balance system of Norway’s Constitution has the same basic concept as the
United State’s Constitution.
Political Parties
The largest political party is the Norwegian Labour party. This party, a social
democratic political group, is concerned with the welfare and social rights for
citizens. On the left, the Socialist Party, which is also rooted in social
democratic tradition, places greater emphasizes on the government’s
responsibilities to ensure the health and welfare of the people. The main
conservative group is Hoyre (the Conservatives), which follows European
standards. Their views of Norway’s economic policy is directly opposite from
the Labour party’s views. In between the two parties are the Liberals, the
Christian Democrats, and the Centre Party.
Whereas, the Progress Party, which stands to the right of the Conservatives,
runs on a liberalistic platform that firmly opposes state controlled taxation.
In addition, Norway has two communist parties, the Communist Party (NKP) and
the Electoral Alliance (RV). These communist parties do not have any
significant control in the political system.
Electoral System
The Norwegian electoral system is based on the same principles as the United
States. Direct elections and proportional representation are the foundation of
the electoral system. The country is divided into 19 constituencies, and then
the constituencies are divided into polling places. Furthermore, all
municipalities consist of only one district. At general elections, 157
constituencies representatives must be elected to the legislature assembly,
which is called the Storting. Municipal and county council representatives are
selected by local government elections. Each political leader is elected for a
four-year. It is up to the King to set the election date, usually for a Monday
in September. Same as in the United States, citizens must be 18 years or older
to vote in all elections. Non-citizens may vote in the local government
elections only. In addition, members of the Storting must have ten years of
residency in Norway in order to run for office.
The Constitution
The Constituent Assemble at Eidsvoll established the Norwegian Constitution in
May 17, 1814. The principles of the Norwegian Constitution include: sovereignty
of the people, separation of powers, and basic human rights. Amendment
proposals to the Constitution must have two-thirds vote of the Storting, a
quorum, in order to pass an amendment to the constitution. Moreover, The
Constitution clearly defines the executive role of the King and his royal
family, the Storting, the Council of State, and the official religion and role.
Health and Social Security Policy
Norway has a well-developed, extensive health care system, which is designed to
benefit the citizens of its country. Approximately 35% of the state’s budget is
spent on health and social welfare. The National Insurance Act and the Social
Care Act are the main policies that provide Norwegians with their social
rights. The health care system is predominantly public financed through general
and individual taxation. All wage earners contribute a percentage of their
paychecks to the national insurance tax. In addition, health services are
funded by block grants, with earmarked funds for priority problems or fields as
needed. The health care policy is designed to stimulate the local health
services to adopt priorities in hospital spending, psychiatry, and cancer
treatment.
The foundation of the health care system is the municipal health services.
Here, citizens may receive preventive measures, general practice,
rehabilitation, and nursing care from municipal health service units. Also, the
state controls and regulates all of the smaller hospitals. Recent legislation
has strengthened patient rights by allowing each individual to freely choose
between hospitals nationwide. In addition, social security covers treatment
abroad if the patient’s condition if potentially fatal or practically
burdensome.
All employed persons receive sick pay. Additionally, workers can also receive
rehabilitation benefits for job-related illnesses, injuries, and defects.
Furthermore, Social security provides dysfunctional persons with medical help,
home care, and other necessary services. Old age pensions are also provided by
Social Security. Whereas, women who have worked at least worked at least six
months out of the last ten months are entitled to maternity leave with pay.
A new legislation reform provides cash benefits for one and two year olds of
families who do not use day care, or have been offered less than 30 hours per
week of day care. The Day Care Institutions Act of 1996 pays 60% of child-care
expenses. Most importantly, the most important law passed that affects children
is the Child Welfare Act. This act is similar to the United States in its
efforts to assure healthy living conditions for all children. It allows the
municipality to intervene and remove children from their homes and place them
in foster care of institutions if their health and/or safety are threatened.
Gender Equality Policy
Equal rights play an important role in Norway’s political system. The women’s
rights activists of the 1970’s were very effective in getting legislature
passed to ensure the equal rights of women. The goal of gender policy is to
give women and men the same possibilities, rights, and obligations within all
sectors of the society. In addition, laws were created to protect women against
sexual violence, as well as give them the same economic opportunities as men. A
Gender Equality Ombudsman was appointed in 1979 to enforce these laws.
Immigrant Issues
There are more than 100,000 immigrants within the country, which make up about
2½% of the total population. Most immigrants entered into the country between
1980 and 1990. The Sami and Finnish speaking groups, which are related to the
gypsies, are the most common minorities in Norway. The main political refugees
included migrants from Chile, Iran, and Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Turkey, Somalia,
and Yugoslavia. Also, Muslims also constituted a majority of the people entering
the country, around 70,000.
A policy on human rights was established because of the existence of
discrimination and racism. This prompted the formation of several organizations
that were designed to protect the rights of immigrants. Because of Norway’s
liberal policy, there are conflicting cultural issues that exist among the
immigrants. For example, the country is obsessed with equality between men and
women. In contrast, most immigrant cultures emphasize male-dominated societies.
Another example is that marriage is based on free will in the country. Whereas,
most immigrant cultures value arranged marriages, some even with multiple
wives. Other cultural issues include native language and religion practices.
Consumer Policy
The Consumer Council was established in 1953, and the Ministry of Family and
Consumer Affairs came into existence three years later. The main focus of the
Consumer Council was to protect the commercial interests of the consumer in
relation to public administration. Later, two other special consumer
institutions, the Consumer Ombudsman and the National Institute for Consumer
Research, were established to further promote consumer interests. All of these
institutions fall under the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs.
The Norwegian Competition Authority, established in 1994, is responsible for
controlling the supply, production, and competition within the market. Their
responsibilities include eliminating price fixing, preventing the division of
the market, promoting free competition, and assisting the EFTA Surveillance
Authority and the European Commission in the enforcement of competition rules.
The Consumer Ombudsman administrative body is an independent institution
established in 1973 in conjunction with the Market Council. Its primary
responsibility is to ensure the Marketing Control Act is complied with in
practice. The Marketing Control Act is intended to protect consumers from
unfair marketing practices and methods. In addition, the institution has the
authority to prohibit and pass resolutions to prohibit illegal marketing.
The Consumer Council is mandated to increase the influence of consumers in
social and commercial affairs, and contribute towards consumer-friendly
development within the society. The council plays an active role in the
preparation of all new legislation and regulations as they relate to consumer
policy. The Consumer Council’s highest body is the National Conference. The
National Conference elects their members, and then the King appoints the head
of the Council.
The National Institute for Consumer Research is the center for investigation,
research, and trial projects that benefit customers. The institution’s primary
task is to disseminate the final results the proper authorities, manufacturers,
and other research establishments and consumers. In addition, the institute
also keeps abreast of developments in consumer affairs outside of the country.
Special regulation of television advertising was created in April 1991. The
responsibility is divided between the Norwegian Media Authority and the
Consumer Ombudsman. The Mass Media Authority must ensure that television
advertising does not exceed the stipulated 15 percent of daily broadcasting
time, and that the commercials are broadcasted in blocks between programs. For
example, advertising can be only aired once during the course of a feature
film. In addition, advertising is only allowed during the breaks of plays or
sports events. Most importantly, Norwegian rules prohibit advertising that
directly targets children, even during children programs.
The Norwegian integration with the EU internal market has led to organizational
changes in product security. Therefore, the Norwegian Electrical Safety
Directorate was established to control and enforce the market’s product
security regulations set by the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement.
A new law, that took effect in January 1999, sets opening hours for all local
establishments within the entire country. According to the law, maximum weekend
hours are between 6.00 and 21.00. Kiosks and grocery stores (up to 100 square
meters), and filling stations (up to 150 square meters) are exempted from this
law, and are allowed to stay open on Sundays. In addition, the County Governor
has the authority to give exceptions for the areas with high tourist traffic.
Economic Policy
Norwegian per capital income ranks among the world’s highest. The North Sea oil
and gas fields are the main cornerstones of the economy. Norwegians rely on
fishing, pulp and paper, forestry, mining, manufacturing, and shipping as their
main sources of income. The economic growth was most favorable in 1993 with the
dramatic economic upswing in 1993. During this period unemployed decreased, and
the stable budget allowed the development of sound budgetary policy and
successful income policy cooperation. In addition, price and cost inflation
remained at a very low level.
The main challenge facing Norway’s economic policy is to reduce inflation.
Norway still remains higher than any of its other trading partners. Currently,
Norway’s gross domestic product is 1192.8 NOK billions. The volume for 2000 was
3.4, and 2.6 for 2001. In addition, the wage growth has remained higher than
its other partners over the past two years. The fiscal policy is responsible for
ensuring growth in demand for goods and services is balanced with the economy.
Furthermore, the policy is very important in determining competitiveness within
the markets. The monetary policy stabilizes the krone (Norwegian money)
exchange. The labor market policy is designed to assistant job seekers in
finding jobs by posting the job vacancies and qualifications.
Norway uses the tax policy to ease pressures experienced by the economy. Also,
the government has put several measures in place to reduce the number of
loopholes in the system. The main tax proposals for 2001 are: supplemental
payroll tax of 1.5%, dividend tax of 14%, reduction of 50 ore per liter on the
excise duties on petrol and diesel, reduction of 17.5 on liquor and spirits,
reduction of taxes in labor and pension income by 10%, changes in the child
benefit scheme, and the increase of taxes in electricity and heating oil
consumption.
Community Statistics
v Official Name: The Kingdom of Norway
v Population: 4,504,000 as of Jan. 2001
v System of Government: Constitutional Monarchy
v Geographical Area: 385,155 sq. km.
v Monetary Unit: Norwegian kroner, NOK
v Coastline Length: 21,192 km.
v Economic Indicators: Inflation rate (2000) 3.1%; Gross Domestic Product
(1999) 1,192,826 million NOK; Gross Domestic Product per capital (1999) 267,328
United States of America
According to political scientists, the United States is considered and
“individualistic” society. A society that is quite capable in operating on its
own, and not really relying on others to instruct them in ascertaining the very
essentials of having a functional, independent, way of living.
To fully understand the depths of the United States’ individuality, several
ideas must be explained. First, one must understand the role of government in
the United States. Secondly, there has to be an understanding of the evolution
of the United States as a society, and the formation of its political structure
and ideologies. Next, an