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When one ponders the Greek mythology and literature, powerful images invariably
come to mind. One relives the heroes’ struggles against innumerable odds, their
battles against magical monsters, and the gods’ periodic intervention in mortal
affairs. Yet, a common and often essential portion of a heroic epic is the
hero’s consultation with an oracle or divinity. This prophecy is usually critical
to the plot line, and also to the well being of the main characters. Could
Priam have survived in the Achaean camp if not at the gods’ instruction
(200-201)? Could the Argos have run the gauntlet of the Prowling Rocks if not
for the gods’ advice of using a sacrificial bird (349). Moreover, prophecy can
be negative as well as positive. Achilles was prophesied to die gloriously in
battle if he chose his life’s way as a warrior. Oedipus was exiled and
condemned by his own words, after he slew his sire and wed his mother. This
type of prophesy can blind even the gods themselves; Chronos was fated to be
defeated and his throne stolen by his son. Demeter loses Persephone
periodically every year because her daughter ate Hades’ pomegranates. Prophecy
plays an important role in the whole of Greek folklore. Something this
ever-present bears further examination. In The Odyssey, prophecy in its myriad
forms affects nearly every aspect of the epic. Prophecies are seen in the forms
of omens, signs, strict prediction of the future, divine condemnation, and
divine instruction. Though conceptually these forms are hard to distinguish,
they are clearly separate in the Odyssey. Moreover, prophecies can be
interpreted not only on the \"plot device\" level, but also on the
level of characterization. Whether a character accepts or denies the gods’
prophecies tells the reader something about the character himself. Omens are
brief prophecies intimately connected to the action at hand, which must be
interpreted in terms of that action. Halitherses comments on the eagle attack
after Telemakhos condemns the suitors (463-464); he correctly interests it to
mean that if the suitors keep feeding off Odysseus’s possessions they will be
destroyed. Yet the suitors ignore the omen, inviting their eventual
destruction. This haughty treatment of a divine omen is a justification for
their deaths. When Penelope says if Odysseus had returned he would, with his
son, surely slay the suitors, Telemakhos let loose a great sneeze (429). This
omen reinforces the previous one, and simultaneously prepares the reader for
the carnage to follow. However, not all omens are effective. In the case of
Telemakhos we see many bird omens signaling for him to do something about the
suitors. Whether it was his immaturity to interpret the bird omens or blind
arrogance Telemakhos does not act on them. In fact, it’s not until Athena comes
to him that he thinks to take action against the suitors in his house. Signs
are similar to omens, but differ in one crucial aspect; the prophesee is
looking for a specific omen in order to decide whether he should or should not
take some action. There is only one good example of a sign in the Odyssey; on
page 460, Odysseus asks Zeus for two divine signs to decide if it is time to
slay the suitors. Zeus answers with a thunderclap from a cloudless sky and
allows Odysseus to overhear a maid’s prayer for vengeance. Because of these
signs, Odysseus begins his plan to slay the suitors. Later on, with a
thunderclap Zeus actually signals for the precise time to strike. Signs are
helpful devices; they allow not only a rationalization for when an event occurs
but also shows the approval of the gods on such an action. Not only are signs
and omens plentiful in the Odyssey, but also the type one usually associates
with prophesying, strict prediction of the future, abounds as well. Penelope
states that she will marry the man who can string Odysseus’s bow and perform
his famous feat (469). Since Odysseus is the only one to do so, the prophecy is
fulfilled. This \"prophesy\" is just a statement of the future; it
contains no judgmental quality whatsoever. Theoklymenos’s prophesies to
Penelope that Odysseus is at hand on the island and plotting vengeance on the
suitors (417) This, of course, is already true, so the prophecy is technically
true as well. However, it makes no judgement on the rightness or wrongness of
either Odysseus’s or the suitors’ position. Teiresias shade’s speech to
Odysseus (333) is a strictly objective foretelling, but nevertheless crucial to
the plot and character development. He states that Odysseus will land on
Thrinakia; that if his shopmates eat Helios’s cattle they will be destroyed;
that Odysseus will make the suitors pay in blood; and that if he makes
reparations to Lord Poseidon he will be granted a gentle sea-borne death.
Though Teiresias S prophecy is devoid of the bias which signs and omens
possess, it contains enough to characterize not only him but also Odysseus.
Teiresias is level headed and just, \"forever / charged with reason even
among the dead\" (329). Odysseus is characterized by his reply to
Teiresias: \" my life runs on then as the gods have spun it\" (334).
Odysseus does not try to escape his destiny or change the prophecy to suit his
personal desire; he merely accepts it and thereby accepts the will of the gods.
Although there are myriad examples of divinities avenging themselves on mortals
for wrongdoings, there is only one good example of divine condemnation
contained directly within a prophecy. Aigisthos is warned by the gods not to
kill Agamemnot (341), but he ignores the advice and is eventually slain by
Orestes, Agamemnon’s son. By his very act of not heeding to the prophecy, he
invites the gods’ revenge; the gods avenge themselves by allowing the prophecy
to be fulfilled. In this case, the gods condemn Aigisthos through the prophecy
because he did not listen to it in the first place! Easily the most often seen
type of prophesy is that of divine instruction. A sample follows: Hermes gives
Odysseus advice and help on how to overcome Circe’s trials (323-324); Circe
also later tells Odysseus the route he is destined to take home, and the trials
he will face (349-350); through Calypso, Zeus prophesies that Odysseus will
return to the \"civilized world\" on Skheria after twenty days at sea
(364). A general relation between a character’s traits and his heeding of
prophecies can be seen when the prophecies are divine instruction. If the
character follows the gods’ advice he will prosper. But the advice is offered
not because a man is prosperous but because he is worthy. Therefore, if a man
is worthy, he will repeatedly receive advice, and vice versa. How is a man
worthy? By being brave, honorable, true, and following the gods’ advice! This
relation is strictly a generalization, but can be applied to the other types of
prophecies as well. The generalization helps us characterize the prophesees by
their heeding of the prophecy. On the negative side, Aigisthos was slain
because he didn’t heed the gods’ warning; this makes him unworthy, which means
he wasn’t brave, honorable, etc. The suitors repeatedly ignored the omens of
the gods and Halitheses’s prophecy; therefore they were unworthy and deserved
to die, etc. On the positive side, because Odysseus is worthy he is brave,
honorable, true, and follows the gods’ advice. Also, because he is worthy the
gods offer him advice. It is circular sequential logic, but it holds in the
book. Odysseus blinds Polyphemus, offends his father, and Poseidon extends
Odysseus’s voyage home. But because Odysseus is worthy and just made an error,
the gods guide him back to reconciliation with the earth-shaker. How? Bad luck
leads Odysseus to Aiaia. There Hermes helps him face Circe. Because of this,
Circe leads Odyseus to the underworld and Teiresias. Teiresias instructs
Odysseus on how to appease Lord Poseidon; Circe tells Odysseus how to get home.
Moreover, though it is difficult to see, prophecies also help characterize the
prophesier, in the Odyssey, mainly the gods. That the gods have the power to see
the prophesier, in the Odyssey, mainly the gods. That the gods have the power
to see the future sets them apart from mortals; that they use this information
wisely indicates that they are responsible beings. That a worthy man like
Odysseus continually follows their advice means that the gods are trustworthy;
that they can fulfill their prophecies even without the prophesee’s cooperation
shows that they are powerful, responsible, trustworthy and aloof. This
description is not exact, but within the superstructure of the Odyssey it is
approximately correct. All the different forms of prophecy, omens, signs,
strict prediction, divine condemnation and instruction, collectively shape
character development: many of the key actions in Homer would not have occurred
if the characters failed to demonstrate faith in prophecies and omens. Though
its use as a plot device is more easily seen, its use for characterization in
the Odyssey is far more important. In previous works, prophecy was used
strictly as a plot rationalization, but in the Odyssey it has a critical role,
affecting both the plot and characters.
Bibliography
Lawall, Sarah. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Norton &
Company, New York.1999.
Word Count: 1521